NB The system of de jure discrimination and residential segregation resulted in the almost complete absence of an assimilated group of Russian Jews during Tsarist times. There were some who become fully acculturated, but they did not really have a Russian national identity.

In contrast, assimilation was the norm in Britain, France, Germany, and to a slightly lesser extent in Hungary and Austria. It was far less common in the Polish lands, but even there the educated Jewish bourgeoisie living in the Austrian Partition and the Congress Kingdom (the ethnic core of Russian Poland) tended to adopt a Polish identity, even though the masses did not. Instead you got a growth of either full rejection of the very concept of national identity, or the adoption of a Jewish one.